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This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. For other uses, see Jesus (disambiguation).
6th-century mosaic in Ravenna, Italy portrays Jesus dressed as a philosopher king in a cloak of Tyrian purple. He appears as the Pantocrator, enthroned as in the Book of Revelation, with the characteristic Christian cross inscribed in the halo behind his head. Though depictions of Jesus are culturally important, no undisputed record of Jesus\' appearance is known to exist.Bouteneff, Peter C. (2006). Sweeter Than Honey: Orthodox Thinking on Dogma and Truth. Crestwood: St. Vladimir\'s Seminary Press, p. 191. ISBN 0-88141-307-0.
Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC/BCE to 26–36 AD/CE),Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992, 54, 56 Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian\'s Review of the Gospels, Scribner\'s, 1977, p. 71; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, Doubleday, 1991–, vol. 1:214; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, Penguin Books, 1993, pp. 10–11, and Ben Witherington III, "Primary Sources," Christian History 17 (1998) No. 3:12–20. also known as Jesus Christ,Christ comes from the Greek Χριστός, Christós, a translation of the Hebrew-derived word Messiah, "the Anointed One"]. is the central figure of Christianity, revered by Christians, with some exceptions, as the incarnation of God. He is also an important figure in several other religions.
The main sources of information regarding Jesus\' life and teachings are the gospels. Most scholars in the fields of history and biblical studies agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jew, was regarded as a teacher and healer, was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on orders of Roman Governor Pontius Pilate, on the charge of sedition against the Roman Empire.Raymond E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave (New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library 1994), p. 964; D. A. Carson, et al., p. 50–56; Shaye J.D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Westminster Press, 1987, p. 78, 93, 105, 108; John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperCollins, 1991, p. xi – xiii; Michael Grant, p. 34–35, 78, 166, 200; Paula Fredriksen, Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews, Alfred B. Knopf, 1999, p. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266; John P. Meier, vol. 1:68, 146, 199, 278, 386, 2:726; E.P. Sanders, pp. 12–13; Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress Press 1973), p. 37.; Paul L. Maier, In the Fullness of Time, Kregel, 1991, pp. 1, 99, 121, 171; N. T. Wright, The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions, HarperCollins, 1998, pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; Ben Witherington III, pp. 12–20.Though many historians may have certain reservations about the use of the Gospels for writing history, "even the most hesitant, however, will concede that we are probably on safe historical footing" concerning certain basic facts about the life of Jesus; Jo Ann H. Moran Cruz and Richard Gerberding, Medieval Worlds: An Introduction to European History Houghton Mifflin Company 2004, pp. 44–45. Few critical scholars believe that all ancient texts on Jesus\' life are either completely accurateStrobel, Lee. The Case for Christ: A Journalist\'s Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus. Zondervan, 1998. ISBN 0310209307; Wright, N.T. The Challenge of Jesus: Rediscovering Who Jesus Was and Is. InterVarsity Press, 1999. ISBN 0830822003; Dunn, James D.G. The Evidence for Jesus." Westminster John Knox Press, 1985. ISBN 0664246982 or completely inaccurate.Examples of authors who argue the Jesus myth hypothesis: Thomas L. Thompson The Messiah Myth: The Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David (Jonathan Cape, Publisher, 2006); Michael Martin, The Case Against Christianity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 36–72; John Mackinnon Robertson
Christian views of Jesus (see also Christology) center on the belief that Jesus is divine, is the Messiah whose coming was prophesied in the Old Testament, and that he was resurrected after his crucifixion. Christians predominantly believe that Jesus is the "Son of God" (meaning that he is God the Son, the second person in the Trinity), who came to provide salvation and reconciliation with God. Other Christian beliefs include Jesus\' virgin birth, performance of miracles, ascension into Heaven, and future Second Coming. The doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted by Christians, some denominations hold to a different nontrinitarian understanding of the divinity of Jesus.
In Islam, Jesus (Arabic: عيسى, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God\'s important prophets, a bringer of scripture, a worker of miracles, and the Messiah. Muslims, however, believe Jesus was not divine and not crucified, but ascended bodily to heaven.
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Scholars do not know the exact year or date of Jesus\' birth or death. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke place Jesus\' birth under the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 BC/BCE,Edwin D. Freed, Stories of Jesus\' Birth, (Continuum International, 2004), page 119. although the Gospel of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea in 6 AD/CE.Geza Vermes, The Nativity: History and Legend, London, Penguin, 2006, page 22. Scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Eerdmans Publishing (2003), page 324. Jesus\' ministry followed that of John the Baptist.Luke states that John\'s ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, and Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas. The Gospels name Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect that had Jesus crucified, and Pilate was prefect of Iudea between 26 and 36 AD/CE.Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, (Eerdmans, 1997), page 168.
The common Western standard for numbering years, in which the current year is 2008, is based on an early medieval attempt to count the years from Jesus\' birth.
While Christmas, in honor of Jesus\' birth, is celebrated December 25, there is no indication that this was his actual birthday. Jesus died after Passover, a Jewish holiday occuring in northern spring. Christians commemorate Jesus\' death at this time of year, on Good Friday.
The Bible\'s four canonical gospels are the main sources for the traditional Christian biography of Jesus\' life. Scholars, although considering the gospel accounts to be historically useful, differ widely as to their reliability. Each gospel portrays Jesus\' life and its meaning differently.Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.Ehrman, Bart D.. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 To combine these four stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story, one different from each original.Ehrman, Bart D.. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 The gospel of John is not a biography of Jesus but a theological presentation of him as the divine Logos.Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
Jesus and Mary: Black Madonna of Częstochowa
Of the four gospels, only Matthew and Luke give accounts of Jesus\' genealogy. The accounts in the two gospels are substantially different, and various theories have been proposed to explain the discrepancies.Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158; Both accounts, however, trace his line back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with Solomon and proceeds through the kings of Judah to the last king, Jeconiah. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when Babylon conquered Judah. Thus, Matthew shows that Jesus is the legal heir to the throne of Israel. Luke\'s genealogy is longer than Matthew\'s; it goes back to Adam and provides more names between David and Jesus.
Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus\' childhood. No mention, however, is made of Joseph during the ministry of Jesus.
The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians tell of Jesus\' relatives, including what may have been brothers and sisters.Matthew 13:55–56, Mark 6:3, and Galatians 1:19 The Greek word adelphos in these verses, often translated as brother, can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians translate the word as kinsman or cousin in this context (see Perpetual virginity of Mary). Luke also mentions that Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist, was a "cousin" or "relative" of Mary (Luke 1:36), which would make John a distant cousin of Jesus.
Adoration of the Shepherds, Gerard van Honthorst, 17th century
According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea to Mary, a virgin, by a miracle of the Holy Spirit. The Gospel of Luke gives an account of the angel Gabriel visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the Son of God (Luke 1:26–38). According to Luke, an order of Caesar Augustus had forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in Nazareth and come to the home of Joseph\'s ancestors, the house of David, for the Census of Quirinius.
After Jesus\' birth, the couple was forced to use a manger in place of a crib because of a shortage of accommodation (Luke 2:1–7). According to Luke, an angel announced Jesus\' birth to shepherds who left their flocks to see the newborn child and who subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see The First Noël). Matthew tells of the "Wise Men" or "Magi" who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born (Matthew 2:1–12).
Jesus\' childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Except for a journey to Egypt by his family in his infancy to escape Herod\'s Massacre of the Innocents and a short trip to Tyre and Sidon (in what is now Lebanon), the Gospels place all other events in Jesus\' life in ancient Israel.For Egypt: Matthew 2:13–23; For Tyre and sometimes Sidon:Matthew 15:21–28 and Mark 7:24–3 According to Matthew, the family remained in Egypt until Herod\'s death, whereupon they returned to Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod\'s son and successor Archelaus (Matthew 2:19–23).
Only Luke tells that Jesus was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple (Luke 2:41–52) is the only event between Jesus\' infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels. According to Luke, Jesus was "about thirty years of age" when he was baptized (Luke 3:23). In Mark, Jesus is called a carpenter. Matthew says he was a carpenter\'s son, suggesting to some that Jesus may have spent some of his first 30 years practicing carpentry with his father (Mark 6:3, Matthew 13:55).
.jpg/58px-Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg)
Temptation of Christ, Ary Scheffer, 19th c.
All three synoptic Gospels describe the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, an event which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus\' public ministry. According to these accounts, Jesus came to the Jordan River where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. Matthew describes John as initially hesitant to comply with Jesus\' request for John to baptize him, stating that it was Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus persisted, "It is proper for us to do this to fulfill all righteousness" (Matthew 3:15). After Jesus was baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: \'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased\'" (Mark 1:10–11). The Gospel of John does not describe the baptism, but it does attest that Jesus is the very one about whom John the Baptist had been preaching — the Son of God.
Following his baptism, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he fasted for forty days and forty nights (Matthew 4:1–2). During this time, the devil appeared to him and tempted Jesus three times. Each time, Jesus refused temptation with a quotation of scripture from the Book of Deuteronomy. The devil departed and angels came and brought nourishment to Jesus (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13, Luke 4:1–13).
Sermon on the Mount, Carl Heinrich Bloch, 19th c.
The Gospels state that Jesus, as Messiah, came to "give his life as a ransom for many" and "preach the good news of the Kingdom of God."Mark 10:45, Luke 4:43, John 20:31. Over the course of his ministry, Jesus is said to have performed various miracles, including healings, exorcisms, walking on water, turning water into wine, and raising several people, such as Lazarus, from the dead (John 11:1–44, Matthew 9:25, and Luke 7:15).
Judæa and Galilee at the time of Jesus
The Gospel of John describes three different passover feasts over the course of Jesus\' ministry. This implies that Jesus preached for a period of at least "two years plus a month or two",Meier 1991 vol. 1:405 although some interpretations of the Synoptic Gospels suggest a span of only one year."The Thompson Chain-Reference Study Bible NIV," published December 1999, B.B. Kirkbride Bible Co., Inc.; William Adler & Paul Tuffin, "The Chronography of George Synkellos: A Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation," Oxford University Press (2002), p. 466 The focus of his ministry was toward his closest adherents, the Twelve Apostles, though many of his followers were considered disciples. The Twelve Apostles and others closest to Jesus were all Jews as shown by Jesus’ statements that his mission is directed only to those of the house of Israel (Matthew 15:24, Matthew 10:1-6) and by the fact that only after the death of Jesus did the apostles agree with Paul that the teaching of the gospel could be extended to uncircumcised Gentiles (Acts 15:1–31, Galatians 2:7-9, Acts 10:1–11:18). Jesus led an apocalyptic following. He preached that the end of the current world would come unexpectedly, and that he would return to judge the world, especially according to how they treated the vulnerable; for this reason, he called on his followers to be ever alert and faithful. Jesus also taught that repentance was necessary to escape hell, and promised to give those who believe in him eternal life (John 3:16–18).
At the height of his ministry, Jesus attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of Galilee and Perea (in modern-day Israel and Jordan respectively).In John, Jesus\' ministry takes place in and around Jerusalem. Some of Jesus\' most famous teachings come from the Sermon on the Mount, which contained the Beatitudes and the Lord\'s Prayer. Jesus often employed parables, such as the Parable of the Prodigal Son and the Parable of the Sower. His teachings encouraged unconditional self-sacrificing God-like love for God and for all people. During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, turning the other cheek, love for one\'s enemies as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of the law in addition to the letter.Sermon on the Mount: Matthew 5–7; Prodigal Son: Luke 15:11–32; Parable of the Sower: Matthew 13:1–9; Agape: Matthew 22:34–40.
Jesus often met with society\'s outcasts, such as the publicani (Imperial tax collectors who were despised for extorting money), including the apostle Matthew; when the Pharisees objected to Jesus\' meeting with sinners rather than the righteous, Jesus replied that it was the sick who need a physician, not the healthy (Matthew 9:9–13). According to Luke and John, Jesus also made efforts to extend his ministry to the Samaritans, who followed a different form of the Israelite religion. This is reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of Sychar, resulting in their conversion (John 4:1–42).
According to the synoptic gospels, Jesus led three of his apostles — Peter, John, and James — to the top of a mountain to pray. While there, he was transfigured before them, his face shining like the sun and his clothes brilliant white; Elijah and Moses appeared adjacent to him. A bright cloud overshadowed them, and a voice from the sky said, "This is my beloved son, with whom I am well pleased."Matthew 17:1–6, Mark 9:1–8, Luke 9:28–36 The gospels also state that toward the end of his ministry, Jesus began to warn his disciples of his future death and resurrection (Matthew 16:21–28).
In the account given by the synoptic gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, "Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!"The crowd was quoting Psalms 118:26; found in John 12:13–16. Following his triumphal entry,John puts the cleansing of the temple at the start of Jesus\' ministry. Jesus created a disturbance at Herod\'s Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers who set up shop there, and claiming that they had made the Temple a "den of robbers." (Mark 11:17). Later that week, Jesus celebrated the Passover meal with his disciples — an event subsequently known as the Last Supper — in which he prophesied that he would be betrayed by one of his disciples, and would then be executed. In this ritual he took bread and wine in hand, saying: "this is my body which is given for you" and "this cup which is poured out for you is the New Covenant in my blood," and instructed them to "do this in remembrance of me" (Luke 22:7–20). Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the Garden of Gethsemane.
While in the Garden, Jesus was arrested by temple guards on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the high priest, Caiaphas (Luke 22:47–52, Matthew 26:47–56). The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large (Mark 14:2). Judas Iscariot, one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with a kiss. Simon Peter, another one of Jesus\' apostles, used a sword to attack one of Jesus\' captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed miraculously.The apostle is identified as Simon Peter in John 18:10; the healing of the ear is found in Luke 22:51. Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" (Matthew 26:52). After his arrest, Jesus\' apostles went into hiding.
During the Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus, the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the Son of God?," and after he replied, "You are right in saying I am," they condemned Jesus for blasphemy (Luke 22:70–71). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate, based on an accusation of sedition for forbidding the payment of taxes Luke 23:1-2 and claiming to be King of the Jews.Matthew 27:11; Mark 15:12. When Jesus came before Pilate, Pilate asked him, "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named Barabbas. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to indicate that he was innocent of the injustice of the decision (Matthew 27:11–26).
According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon at Calvary, which was also called Golgotha. The wealthy Judean Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin according to Mark and Luke, received Pilate\'s permission to take possession of Jesus\' body, placing it in a tomb.Mark 15:42–46; Luke 23:50–56. According to John, Joseph was aided by Nicodemus, who joined him to help bury Jesus, and who appears in other parts of John\'s gospel (John 19:38–42). The three Synoptic Gospels tell of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon; Matthew also mentions an earthquake (Matthew 27:51).
Christ en majesté, Matthias Grünewald, 16th c.: Resurrection of Jesus
According to the Gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion.Matthew 28:5-10; Mark 16:9; Luke 24:12–16; John 20:10–17; Acts 2:24; 1Cor 6:14 The Gospel of Matthew states that an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to Mary Magdelene and "another Mary" who had arrived to anoint the body (Matthew 28:1–10). According to Luke there were two angels (Luke 24:4), and according to Mark there was a youth dressed in white (Mark 16:5). The "longer ending" to Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to Mary Magdalene (Mark 16:9). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name (John 20:11–18).
The Acts of the Apostles state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travelers on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–35). To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection (John 20:19). Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the Great Commission and ascended to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, Paul of Tarsus had a vision of Jesus during his Road to Damascus experience. Jesus promised to come again to fulfill the remainder of Messianic prophecy.Ministering to Israel: Matthew 15:24; ascension: Mark 16:19; Luke 24:51Acts 1:6–11.; Paul\'s conversion on the road to Damascus: Acts 9:1–19., 22:1–22; 26:9–24; Second coming: Matthew 24:36–44
The Gospels present Jesus\' birth, life, death, and resurrection as fulfillments of prophecies found in the Hebrew Bible. See, for example, the virgin birth, the flight into Egypt, Immanuel (Isaiah 7:14), and the suffering servant."What the Old Testament Prophesied About the Messiah". Retrieved on 2007-10-11.
Scholars have used the historical method to develop probable reconstructions of Jesus\' life. Over the past two hundred years, the image of Jesus among historical scholars has come to be very different than the common image of Jesus that was based on the gospels.Borg, Marcus J. in Borg, Marcus J. and N. T. Wright. The Meaning of Jesus: Two visions. New York: HarperCollins. 2007. Some scholars draw a distinction between Jesus as reconstructed through historical methods and Jesus as understood through a theological point of view, while other scholars hold that a theological Jesus represents a historical figure.[citation needed]See, for an example of the latter, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth. Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 978-0-385-52341-7 The main sources of information regarding Jesus\' life and teachings are the gospels, especially the synoptic gospels: Mark, Matthew, and Luke. Biblical scholars and most historians accept the historical existence of Jesus and regard claims against his existence as "effectively refuted"."The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted." - Van Voorst, Robert E. Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 16.
The English title of Albert Schweitzer\'s 1906 book, "The Quest of the Historical Jesus," is a label for the post-Enlightenment effort to describe Jesus using modern historical methods.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Since the end of the 18th century, scholars have examined the gospels and tried to formulate historical biographies of Jesus. Contemporary efforts benefit from a better understanding of 1st-century Judaism, renewed Roman Catholic biblical scholarship, broad acceptance of critical historical methods, sociological insights, and literary analysis of Jesus\' sayings.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
Historians analyze the gospels to try to discern the historical man on whom these stories are based. They compare what the gospels say to historical events relevant to the times and places where the gospels were written. They try to answer historical questions about Jesus, such as why he was crucified.
Most scholars agree the Gospel of Mark was written about the time of the destruction of the Jewish Temple by the Romans under Titus in the year 70, and that the other gospels were written between 70–100.Meier (1991), pp.43–4 The historical outlook on Jesus relies on critical analysis of the Bible, especially the gospels. Many scholars have sought to reconstruct Jesus\' life in terms of contemporaneous political, cultural, and religious currents in Israel, including differences between Galilee and Judea, and between different sects such the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see S. G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity, Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0–684–31010–4For a general comparison of Jesus\' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see John P. Meier, Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3) Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0–385–46993–4. and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation.
Peter Kirby\'s Historical Jesus Theories gives an overview of the conflicting answers that recent writers have given to these questions. The variety and contradictory character of these answers indicate that what follows here is not to be taken as representing a consensus among scholars.
Historians generally describe Jesus as an itinerant preacher and leader of a religious movement within Judaism.Harrison, John B. and Richard E. Sullivan. A short history of Western civilization. New York: Knopf. 1975. The historical Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, taught in parables and aphorisms, challenged pious traditions, legalism and social hierarchy, and was crucified by the Romans. Historians are divided over whether Jesus followed a career of healing and exorcism,[citation needed] preached the end of the world was imminent, and saw his crucifixion as inevitable.
John the Baptist led a large apocalyptic movement. He demanded repentance and baptism. Jesus was baptized and later began his ministry. After John was executed, some of his followers apparently took Jesus as their new leader.
Historians are nearly unanimous in accepting Jesus\' baptism as a historical event.
Historical Jesus taught in pithy parables and with striking images.Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. He likened the Kingdom of Heaven to small and lowly things, such as yeast or a mustard seed,Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21. that have great effects. Historians often see Jesus\' theological pronouncements in the gospels as coming from the Christian tradition but not from Jesus\' himself.
Jesus placed a special emphasis on God as one\'s heavenly father.Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.
Jesus preached to Jews. Historians suspect that the gospel references to preaching to non-Jews reflect the authors\' views.
Jesus proclaimed the Kingdom of God, the most important symbol by which he expressed his religious meaning.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Jesus proclaimed that the Kingdom of God was near, and emphasized the good things this meant for the poor and suffering.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally taken Jesus\' proclamations as indicating he was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this interpretation is negligible.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
The gospels portray Jesus as leading an apocalyptic movement, proclaiming the Kingdom of God. Scholars have traditionally credited these account, though since the 1970s some scholars have taken to arguing that Jesus\' Kingdom of God was already present. Scholars such as Robert W. Funk regard the apocalyptic elements in the gospels as reflecting early Christian beliefs, not Jesus\' own words.Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Others, such as Karen Armstrong, regard Jesus as continuous with a history of Jewish apocalyptic holy men.
Jesus seems to have been executed for political rather than religious reasons.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Jerusalem at Passover was a highly charged time, and Jesus\' disruptive confrontation at the Temple may have precipitated his arrest and execution.Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. page 21.
Scholars are nearly unanimous in accepting the crucifixion as historical.[citation needed]
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The name Jesus is an anglicization of the Hebrew name that would have more closely been pronounced as spelled Yeshua.[citation needed]
Jesus probably lived in Galilee for most of his life and he probably spoke Aramaic and Hebrew.Brian Knowles: Which Language Did Jesus Speak – Aramaic or Hebrew?. The name "Jesus" is an English transliteration of the Latin (Iēsus) which in turn comes from the Greek name Iesous (Ιησους). The name has also been translated into English as "Joshua"."Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 14, 2007. Further examination of the Septuagint finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the Hebrew/Aramaic Yeshua (ישוע) (Yeshua — he will save) a contraction of Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע Yeho — Yahweh [is] shua` — deliverance/rescue, usually Romanized as Joshua). Scholars believe that one of these was likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205–7;
Christ (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for Messiah (χριστός, from the verb χρίω "to anoint"), and literally means "anointed one." Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today.Vermes, "Jesus the Jew: A Historian\'s Reading of the Gospels"
The titles "Divine", "Son of God", "God", "God from God", "Lord", "Redeemer", "Liberator", and "Saviour of the World" were each applied to the Roman emperors. John Dominic Crossan considers that the application of them to Jesus by the early Christians would have been regarded as denying them to the emperor(s). "They were taking the identity of the Roman emperor and giving it to a Jewish peasant. Either that was a peculiar joke and a very low lampoon, or it was what the Romans called majestas and we call high treason." Crossan, John Dominic, God and Empire, 2007, p. 28
The title Son of God has often been taken as a claim to divinity. Likewise, Jesus claimed the title "I AM" in John 8:58 which designates God in the Hebrew Bible, especially in Exodus 3:14."Jesus was claiming for himself the title "I AM" by which God designates himself... he was claiming to be God." - Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, page 546, Zondervan. Some New Testament scholars, however, argue that Jesus himself made no claims to being God."A further point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars is ... that the historical Jesus did not make the claim to deity that later Christian thought was to make for him: he did not understand himself to be God, or God the Son, incarnate. " - John Hick, The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age, Westminster John Knox Press, page 27.Michael Ramsey, Jesus and the Living Past (Oxford University Press, 1980), page 39: \'Jesus did not claim deity for himself’C. F. D. Moule, The Origin of Christology : \'Any case for a "high" Christology that depended on the authenticity of the alleged claims of Jesus about himself, especially in the Fourth Gospel, would indeed be precarious\'James Dunn (theologian), Christology in the Making, (SCM Press 1980), page 254: \'We cannot claim that Jesus believed himself to be the incarnate Son of God\' and \'There is no question in my mind that the doctrine of incarnation comes to clear expression within the NT…John 1.14 ranks as a classic formulation of the Christian belief in Jesus as incarnate God.\' Page xiii. . Brian Hebblethwaite, The Incarnation (Cambridge University Press, 1987), page 74: \'it is no longer possible to defend the divinity of Jesus by reference to the claims of Jesus\' . John A. T. Robinson, Honest to God, Westminster Press (1963), Page 47: \'It is, indeed, an open question whether Jesus ever claimed to be the Son of God, let alone God.\'Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, page 5, describes the view that Jesus made \'both his messiahship and his divinity clear to his disciples during his ministry\' as \'naive and ahistorical\'. Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of views as to what exactly this implied.Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, (Eerdmans, 2005), page 650.
Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st-century to better reconstruct Jesus\' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group.
Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st-century Judaism. After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisee outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism.
Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. Maccoby, Hyam Jesus the Pharisee, Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0–334–02914–7; Falk, Harvey Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1–59244–313–3. In Jesus\' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus\' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce (Mark 10:1–12).Neusner, Jacob A Rabbi Talks With Jesus, McGill-Queen\'s University Press, 2000. ISBN 0–7735–2046–5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus\' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel. Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel\'s teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment (Mark 12:28–34) and the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12).
The Sadducee sect was particularly powerful in Jerusalem and opposed to the Pharisees."Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the oral law, retribution in the afterlife, the resurrection, angels, and spirits."Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 They opposed Jesus\' ministry, perhaps because they feared trouble from the Roman occupiers."Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 They may have been the ones who turned Jesus over to the Romans for execution.Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 With the fall of the Jerusalem, they disappeared from history."Sadducees." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics.
Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. The Essenes were one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the New Testament.Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Dead Sea Scrolls, especially the Teacher of Righteousness and Pierced Messiah. Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0–14–025773-X; Stegemann, Hartmut The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," Biblical Archaeology Review, 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus\' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus\' The Jewish Wars and in the Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also Akers, Keith The Lost Religion of Jesus. Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3. Among this group is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community." Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 14
Still other scholars hypothesize that Jesus led a new apocalyptic sect, possibly related to John the Baptist,See Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0–02–089240–3; Ehrman, Bart Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0–19–512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John\'s apocalyptic ministry and Jesus\' ethical ministry. See Crossan, John Dominic, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus, pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0–06–061659–8. who became early Christian after the Great Commission spread his teachings to the Gentiles.This includes the belief that Jesus was the Messiah.
